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Salud psicológica en personas que sufrieron COVID-19 : factores predictores = Psychological health in people having suffered from COVID-19 : predictors
(Población y Salud en Mesoamérica, Volumen 22, número 2, art. cient., enero-junio, 2025) Angelucci, Luisa; Rondón Bernard, José Eduardo
La pandemia de COVID-19 impactó negativamente en la salud mental de gran parte de la población, no solo por las implicaciones físicas obvias producidas por el virus, que en algunos casos llevaron a la muerte, sino también a causa del confinamiento, la pérdida del trabajo, el trabajo remoto, el miedo a la muerte, el temor al contagio, entre otras preocupaciones (De Abreu y Angelucci, 2021; Olabarría González, 2024). Por su parte, los encargados del cuidado de la salud tuvieron que afrontar la emergencia sanitaria con pocas herramientas y bajo un estado de incertidumbre; y ahora, luego de superada la etapa crítica, deben dirigir estudios epidemiológicos y diagnósticos,así como lineamientos terapéuticos para las personas que sufrieron la enfermedad (Teveles, 2023). Se estima que entre el 10 y el 20 % de las personas que padecieron COVID-19 puede continuar experimentando síntomas, como fatiga persistente y grave, dificultad para respirar e incluso problemas de salud psicológica. Y dado que en el continente americano se han registrado más de 161 millones de casos desde que se decretó la pandemia en Wuhan en el año 2020, millones de personas en la región podrían verse afectadas por la condición pos-COVID-19, de acuerdo con la Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS, 2022).
Individual saturated fatty acids and nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Costa Rica
(European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, no. 57, 2003) Kabagambe, EK.; Baylin A.; Siles, X.; Campos, H.
Increased saturated fat intake is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) (Hu et al, 1999, 2001), the leading cause of death in many Western and Latin American countries (Anon, 2002; Reddy & Yusuf, 1998). Although the effect of saturated fat on CVD risk has been mainly attributed to its ability to raise total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (Kris-Etherton & Yu, 1997), it could be due, in part, to low-fiber intake among consumers of high-fat diets (Ascherio et al, 1996). Studies in Nigeria suggest that the effects of saturated fat on serum cholesterol depend on the subject’s physical activity level, total fat and total energy intakes (Kesteloot et al, 1989; Glew et al, 2001)
Transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) for case–control studies
(European Journal of Human Genetics, no. 12, 2004) Ruiz Narváez, Edward A.; Campos, Hannia
Genetic association, case–control studies are becoming a major instrument in the attempt to identify disease susceptibility markers of complex diseases. However, a major drawback of population-based studies of genetic association is the confounding effect of the population subdivision. We developed a statistic named T-value that estimates the differential transmission of marker alleles from heterozygous parents to the affected offspring, based on population data. Our method does not assume Hardy –Weinberg equilibrium and it can be used in very different population structures. A great advantage of this approach is that the genetic structure of the population can be assessed with a few unlinked loci and using classical population genetics theory (ie Wright’s F-statistics). Four general models, assuming either one population with random mating, or one population without random mating, or several populations with random mating within them, or several populations without random mating within them, were developed to determine the behavior of the T-value under different mating conditions. Although a complete knowledge of the population structure is ideal to choose the best model, the simulations show that for a total inbreeding of 0.30 or less the last three models gave very similar estimates of the T-value. The model that assumed that total departure of Hardy–Weinberg proportions is due to population subdivision was the most robust under different scenarios of population structure. In sum, this study describes a novel procedure that can be used to identify the transmission of disease susceptibility markers in population-based studies.
Intake of Trans Fatty Acids and Low-Density Lipoprotein Size in a Costa Rican Population
(Metabolism, Vol 52, No 6 june, 2003) Kim, Mi Kyung; Campos, Hannia
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE is the main cause of death in most Latin American countries1 and in Hispanics living in the United States.2 The highest age-adjusted mortality rates (per 100,000) from cardiovascular disease are found in men and women living in Brazil (534.3 and 374.4, respectively), whereas Costa Rica has the highest cardiovascular disease rates in Central America (229.1 and 175.4, respectively). These numbers are comparable to those found in men and women living in industrialized North American countries, such as Canada (314.8 and 170.4, respectively) and the United States (223.1 and 136.1, respectively)
Incidencia de cáncer de estómago
(INISA, 2000) Guell, Douglas; Rosero Bixby, Luis
Aspectos biodemograficos de la población de Costa Rica : informe correspondiente al año 1940 presentado por Pablo Luros
(Imprenta Nacional, 1942) Costa Rica. Ministerio de Salubridad Pública y Proyección Social. Departamento de Biodemografía
Señor Secretario de Estado en el Despacho de Salubridad Pública y Protección Social. S. D. Señor Secretario de Estado: De conformidad con la lev X ? 52 sobre Protección de la Salud Pública, del 12 de marzo de 1923, tengo la honra de presentar a usted el informe adjunto, correspondiente a las labores de este Servicio durante el año de 1940. Este informe está dividido en cinco capítulos a saber: Capítulo I.— Reorganización. Capítulo II.— Estado y movimiento de la población de Costa Rica. Capítulo I I I . — Causas de muerte. Capitulo íV .— Generalidades. Capítulo Y .— Recomendaciones. Acompaña el informe un apéndice de los siguientes cuadros esta dísticos : 1.— Profesionales del arte de curar. 2.— Relación de habitantes por cada profesional. 3.— Relación de superficie por cada profesional. 4. — Establecimientos médico-asistencia les. 5.— Proporción de habitantes por establecimiento y por cama. ó.— Movimiento demográfico de! país durante el año 1940 (población, matrimonios, nacimientos, mortinatos, mortalidad infantil, mortalidad general y asistencia médica), por distrito administrativo. 7.— Causas de la mortalidad general del año 1940 por provincia. sexo, edad y asistencia médica. 8.— Causas de la mortalidad infantil (menores de 1 año) del año 1940, por sexo, edad en meses y asistencia médica. Para el estudio y presentación de los diferentes aspectos biodemográíicos hemos utilizado solamente el método aritmético, más sencillo y más generalizado. Para mayor demostración del papel que la organización y labor sanitarias desempeñan en el descenso de los diferentes aspectos de la mortalidad. y. con el fin de dotar al país y nuestro propio servicio de un documento con el movimiento de la población de algunos años atrás, hemos incluido los datos de ese movimiento desde el año ! 916.
Nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Costa Rica: modifiable risk factors, population-attributable risks, and adherence to dietary guidelines
(Circulation Journal of the American Heart Association, Vol. 115, no. 9, 2007) Kabagambe, Edmond K.; Baylin, Ana; Campos Núñez, Hannia
Disability and mortality resulting from cardiovascular disease (CVD) are on the rise in many developing countries, partly because of the nutritional transition and westernization of lifestyles. Developing countries account for 80% of the global CVD burden. In 2002, the number of health-years of life lost to heart disease including myocardial infarction (MI) per 1000 people in developing countries was between 6 and 20 for countries such as Costa Rica, Uganda, Croatia, Nigeria, Indonesia, and India, whereas for developed countries, they were 5 for Australia, 5 for Canada, 7 for the United Kingdom, and 8 for the United States. These numbers suggest poor quality of secondary prevention and lack of primary CVD prevention in developing countries. Recent data show that primary prevention could reduce CVD deaths by 4 times the reduction achieved through secondary prevention.
Does genetic variation in the Δ6-desaturase promoter modify the association between α-linolenic acid and the prevalence of metabolic syndrome?
(The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol.89, no. 3, 2009) Truong, Hong; DiBello, Julia R.; Ruiz Narváez, Edward A.; Kraft, Peter; Campos Núñez, Hannia; Baylin, Ana
Background: Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are associated with protection against components of the metabolic syndrome, but the role of α-linolenic acid (ALA), the metabolic precursor of EPA and DHA, has not been studied. The Δ6-desaturase enzyme converts ALA into EPA and DHA, and genetic variation in the Δ6-desaturase gene (FADS2) may affect this conversion.
Association between hepatic lipase -514 C/T promoter polymorphism and myocardial infarction is modified by history of hypercholesterolemia and waist circumference
(Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases, Volumen 20, no. 7, 2009) Baylin, Ana; Ruiz Narváez, Edward A.; Jensen, Majken K.; Rimm, Eric B.; Campos Núñez, Hannia
Background and aims: To examine whether the association between the 514 C/T polymorphism of the hepatic lipase gene and myocardial infarction (MI) is modified by history of hypercholesterolemia and increased waist circumference. Hepatic Lipase (HL) is a major determinant of HDL cholesterol, an established independent predictor of coronary heart disease (CHD) [1]. However, the role of HL in atherosclerosis remains uncertain. Overexpression of HL in transgenic and knockout animal models has resulted in both antiatherogenic and pro-atherogenic effects [2]. Although low HL activity in humans has been identified as a risk factor for CHD [3] the net effect of HL on CHD is hard to establish given its role in lipoprotein metabolism as both a lipolytic enzyme and as a ligand that facilitates uptake of lipoproteins [4]. Four linked polymorphisms (250 G to A, 514 C to T, 710 T to C, 763 A to G) have been identified in the promoter region of the HL gene [5]. These four poly- morphisms are in complete linkage disequilibrium and together define a common HL allele designed as 514 T allele. The T allele at position 514 of the HL gene is consistently associated with lower HL activity, higher HDL cholesterol, particularly HDL2 cholesterol, higher remnant-like particles, and triglyceride content and size of HDL and LDL particles [6]. Nevertheless, evidence of the effect of the 514 T allele on CHD is inconsistent. Some studies have shown no association [7-14], while others have shown an increased risk of CHD for carriers of the 514 T allele [15-19]. Surprisingly, the 514 T allele has not been inversely associated with CHD.
The type of oil used for cooking is associated with the risk of nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Costa Rica
(The Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 135, no 11, 2005) Kabagambe, Edmond K.; Baylin, Ana; Ascherio, Alberto; Campos Núñez, Hannia
Palm oil and soybean oil are the 2 most widely used cooking oils in the world. Palm oil is consumed mainly in developing countries, where morbidity and mortality due to cardiovascular disease (CVD) are on the rise. Although claims about adverse or protective effects of these oils are commonly made, there are no epidemiologic studies assessing the association between these oils and cardiovascular disease endpoints. We examined whether consumption of palm oil relative to soybean oil and other unsaturated oils (predominantly sunflower) is associated with myocardial infarction (MI) in Costa Rica. The cases (n = 2111) were survivors of a first acute MI and were matched to randomly selected population controls (n = 2111). Dietary intake was assessed with a validated semiquantitative FFQ. Adipose tissue profiles of essential fatty acids were assessed to validate cooking oil intake and found to be consistent with self-reported major oils used for cooking. The data were analyzed using conditional logistic regression. Palm oil users were more likely to have an MI than users of soybean oil [odds ratio (OR) = 1.33; 95% CI: 1.08–1.63] or other cooking oils (OR = 1.23; CI: 0.99–1.52), but they did not differ from users of soybean oil with a high trans-fatty acid content (OR = 1.14; CI: 0.84–1.56). These data suggest that as currently used in Costa Rica, and most likely in many other developing countries, the replacement of palm oil with a polyunsaturated nonhydrogenated vegetable oil would reduce the risk of MI.
The relation between trans fatty acid levels and increased risk of myocardial infarction does not hold at lower levels of trans fatty acids in the costa rican food supply
(The Journal of Nutrition, Vol.136, no. 11, 2006) Colón Ramos, Uriyoán; Baylin, Ana; Campos Núñez, Hannia
Data on the effects of recent industrial modifications that reduced the trans fatty acid (TFA) content in food supplies are scarce. In this study, incident cases (n = 1797) of a first nonfatal myocardial infarction (MI) were matched with population controls (n = 1797) for age, sex, and area of residence in Costa Rica. Odds ratio (OR) and 95% CI were calculated from conditional logistic regressions before and after a reduction of TFA in Costa Rican foods. Initially, the median quintiles of total adipose tissue TFA were 1.85, 2.47, 2.99, 3.58, and 4.40 g/100 g; total TFA was positively associated with increased MI risk after adjusting for established risk factors (OR by quintiles of total TFA: 1.00, 1.37, 1.91, 1.86, 3.28; P for trend < 0.001). This association was mostly due to 18:2 trans. In contrast, after industrial modification, median quintiles of total adipose tissue TFA were 1.84, 2.26, 2.57, 2.88, and 3.42 g/100 g; the association with MI was no longer significant (OR by quintiles of total TFA: 1.00, 0.78, 1.03, 0.88, and 1.03; P for trend = 0.65). Adipose tissue 18:1 trans fatty acids were not associated with risk of MI before or after the modification. Although to date there are no TFA regulations in Costa Rica, it appears that indirect international influence has led to a TFA reduction in the food supply and, consequently, to a reduction in the risk of nonfatal MI. The public health sector of Costa Rica should regulate food labeling and content to ensure very low levels of TFA intake.
Socioeconomic development, health interventions, and mortality decline in Costa Rica
(Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine, Supplement, No. 46, 1991) Rosero Bixby, Luis
Costa Rica, whose life expectancy was 74 years by 1985, has reached a health level comparable to a developed country. The health achievements of this country are product of political and socioeconomic circumstances as well as of right public health policies. Until about 1970 the features of Costa Rica mortality, although somewhat better than the Latin American average, evolved in a similar way to the rest of the region. In particular, the decades of 1940s and 1950s saw dramatic improvements in life expectancy, thanks mainly to the import of low-cost, high-effectiveness health technologies. In the 1970s, however, Costa Rica departed from a regional pattern of stagnation and managed to close the gap with developed countries in terms of mortality levels. A dramatic decline in the infant mortality rate from 60 to 19 per 1,000 took place in this decade. The main determinants of this breakthrough were health interventions, notably a primary health care program, even though favorable socioeconomic conditions and a reduced fertility also played a role. Ecological data and other evidence suggest that up to three fourths of the mortality decline was accounted for contemporary improvements in public health services, with about 40 percent attributable to primary health care interventions. Furthermore, by targeting interventions on the less privileged population, these interventions had the merit of reducing geographic and socioeconomic differentials in child mortality.
Tabaquismo en la mujer costarricense : 1984-85
(Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, 1987) Rosero Bixby, Luis; Oberle, Mark W
Se analizan los resultados de una encuesta con representatividad nacional de 870 mujeres costarricenses con edades entre los 25 a 59 años y entrevistadas entre los años de 1984-1985. Se ve en el fumado uno de los principales factores de riesgo para las enfermedades cardiovasculares y para varios tipos de cáncer. En la mujer el tabaquismo tiene, además, otras implicaciones. En combinación con los anticonceptivos orlaes multiplica varias veces el riesgo de cardiopatías y enfermedades cerebrovasculaes y durante el embarazo el fumado puede afectar seriamente la formación del feto. En términos generales, la sociedad tiene que pagar un alto precio por el hábito del fumado, tanto en daños a la salud como en los gasto de atención médica, incapacidades y seguros. Para el caso costarricense de las entrevistadas, el 14 por ciento declararon ser fumadoras al momento de la encuesta y el 21 por ciento que alguna vez lo habían practicado. La prevalencia del fumado resultó mayor entre las mujeres con más educación, pertenecientes a los estratos socioeconómicos más altos y entre las residentes en las zonas urbanas. La mayoría de las fumadoras comenzaron a fumar antes de los 25 años de edad. Entre las más jóvens comenzaron con el hábito del fumado entre los 15 y los 24 años y estas representan más del doble que en la población más vieja, Se concluye que las estrategias para prevenir el fumado en las mujeres costarricenses, deben centrar su atención en las jóvenes adolescentes, especialmente en los grupos socioeconómicamente mejor acomodados. LOB/LOB
Política nacional de salud 2002-2006
(Ministerio de Salud, 2003) Costa Rica. Ministerio de Salud
La realidad social del país ha evidenciado la necesidad de contar con instrumentos de planificación que den una orientación clara del rumbo que en materia sanitaria debe seguir el país y determinar el uso más adecuado de los recursos. En este marco y apoyada en la legislación, así como en la experiencia que las instituciones del sector han ido desarrollando se hace imperioso contar con los lineamientos que canalicen el accionar en materia de salud para mantener y mejorar los índices de salud de la población. En este sentido, la Política Nacional de Salud desarrolla los principios y las acciones estratégicas principales para ser implementadas por el sector durante la presente administración. Vale anotar, que la Política Nacional de Salud se fundamenta en el conocimiento de la realidad del país evidenciada en el reciente Análisis del Sector, el cual mostró de manera fehaciente la situación sanitaria de nuestro país y permitió identificar las acciones prioritarias que debemos desarrollar en este campo para lograr los cambios que en materia sanitaria deben ser impulsados. El proceso de elaboración de la Política Nacional de Salud contó con la amplia participación de representantes de las instituciones del sector así como de otros sectores, cuyo aporte fue muy significativo para definir las acciones a seguir. En este proceso se integraron funcionarios del Ministerio de Salud, la Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social, del Instituto Costarricense de Acueductos y Alcantarillado, del Instituto Nacional de Seguros, del Instituto sobre Alcoholismo y Farmacodependencia, del Instituto Costarricense de Investigaciones y Educación en Nutrición y Salud, de las universidades, municipalidades, Consejo Nacional de Rehabilitación y otros actores sociales de importancia para el sector. Instrumento que ponemos al servicio del país y que permitirá orientar y fortalecer el esfuerzo encaminado a la protección, mantenimiento y mejoramiento de la salud del país. La evaluación, el monitoreo y los procesos de rendición de cuentas son los instrumentos que permitirán en el futuro medir el impacto de las políticas que hoy presentamos a la sociedad.
Frecuencia del alelo causante de la enfermedad de Charcot-Marie-Tooth (tipo axonal con herencia autosómica recesiva) en Palmares, Costa Rica
(Revista de Biología Tropical/International Journal of Tropical Biology and Conservation;, Vol 57 (Suplemento 1), 2009) Rojas Araya, Melissa; Bonilla Carrión, Róger Enrique; Campos, Sergio; Centeno, Carolina; Del Valle, Christian; Pacheco, Juan Pablo; Saborío, Alina; Vega, Jovel; Fernández, Hubert; Leal Esquivel, Alejandro
La enfermedad de Charcot-Marie-Tooth constituye el grupo de neuropatías periféricas hereditarias más común a nivel mundial. Una familia con 18 afectados del cantón de Palmares (Alajuela, Costa Rica) con una neuropatía de tipo axonal y herencia autosómica recesiva, permitió localizar el gen responsable en la región 19q13.33. Posteriormente se identificó la mutación causante en el gen MED25. El presente estudio determinó la frecuencia del alelo mutante, así como la distribución geográfica de este alelo. En una muestra al azar de 103 individuos se encontraron seis individuos heterocigotas para la mutación, distribuidos por todo el cantón. No se encontró ninguna persona en estado homocigota para este alelo. No hallamos alguna característica clínica que difiera significativamente entre los individuos homocigotos silvestres y los heterocigotos para la mutación. El 5.83% de la población es heterocigota y la frecuencia del alelo Ala335Val es de 0.029, seis veces mayor que en una muestra de toda la población costarricense. Por esta razón se recomienda un análisis molecular de portadores con el fin de alertar sobre la posibilidad de aparición de más casos en el cantón. The Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease constitutes is among the most frequent hereditary peripheral neuropathies world-wide. We identified a family from Palmares (Alajuela, Costa Rica) with 18 affected members. Their neuropathy is axonal, with an autosomal recessive pattern of inheritance; the responsible gene is at the 19q13.33 chromosomal region. Later the mutation was identified in gene MED25. We studied the frequency and geographic distribution of the mutant allele. In a random sample of 103 individuals, six were heterozygote and were widely distributed in Palmares. There was no person in homozigote state for the mutant allele. Clinical characteristics do not differ significantly between individuals that are homozygous for the wildtype allele and individuals heterozygous for the mutation. A 5.83 % of the population is heterozygote and the frequency of the Ala335Val allele is 0.029, six times higher than in a sample of the Costa Rican population. We recommend a molecular analysis of carriers to detect additional cases in the region.
Dietary patterns and risk of nonfatal acute myocardial infarction in Costa Rican adults
(European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 60, no. 6, 2006) Martínez Ortiz, J. A.; Fung, T. T.; Baylin, Ana; Hu, F. B.; Campos, Hannia
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) has become an important public health problem in transition countries in Latin America (Medina and Kaempffer, 2000; Cubillos-Garzón et al., 2004; Ventura and Mehra, 2004; World HealthOrganization, 2004). Because changes in dietary intake are, in part, likely responsible for the increase in CVD during the past 20–30 years (Popkin, 2001), it is essential to identify foods that could play a role on CVD in developing countries. Food pattern analysis has become a valuable tool to examine the effects of diet on chronic disease (Jacques and Tucker, 2001; Hu, 2002). A major advantage of this procedure is that it takes into account multiple dietary factors, including nutrient and non-nutrient components, which could have complex effects on disease risk (Hu, 2002). In the context of Western countries, two main patterns that relate to CVD have been identified. In one study in men (Hu, 2002), a Western dietary pattern consisting primarily of red and processed meat, refined grains, sweets and desserts, French fries, and high-fat dairy products was associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease. In Denmark, a prudent dietary pattern consisting of whole meal bread, fruit, and vegetables was protective against all cause and cardiovascular mortality (Osler et al ., 2001). In the same study, no association with mortality was found for a Western pattern characterized by high intake of meat products, potatoes, white bread, butter, and lard. Consistently, a Mediterranean style diet which includes olive oil, fiber, fruits, vegetables, fish and alcohol, and reduced in meat and meat products was also protective against myocardial infarction (MI) (Martinez-Gonzalez et al ., 2002). The purpose of our study is to identify dietary patterns that are associated with risk of incident MI in Costa Rica, a Latin American country in transition (Reddy, 2004).
Abdominal obesity and hyperglycemia mask the effect of a common APOC3 haplotype on the risk of myocardial infarction
(Am J Clin Nutr., no. 87, 2008) Ruiz Narváez, Edward A.; Sacks, Frank M; Campos, Hannia
The plasma concentration of apolipoprotein (apo) C-III is a strong predictor of the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) (1, 2). Apo C-III impairs the clearance of apo B lipoproteins from plasma, which results in an increase in plasma triacylglycerol concentrations (3–7) and directly activates atherosclerotic and inflammatory pathways in vascular cells (8, 9). Therefore, genetic variation affecting the expression of the APOC3 gene may alter apo C-III metabolism and influence CHD. Minor alleles of the 3238C - G (SstI site), -482C-T, and -455T-C polymorphisms are associated with higher plasma triacylglycerol (10–13) and apo C-III (14) concentrations and with an increased risk of CHD (13, 15–17).
Effect of apolipoprotein E genotype and saturated fat intake on plasma lipids and myocardial infarction in the Central Valley of Costa Rica
(Human Biology, Vol. 79, no. 6, 2007) Yang, Yadong; Ruiz Narváez, Edward A.; Kraft, Peter; Campos, Hannia
Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is a ligand for the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor and the LDL receptor-related protein (LRP) (Mahley and Rall 2000). Through these receptors apoE mediates the uptake of chylomicron remnants into the liver and the uptake of circulating very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) and intermediate-density lipoprotein (IDL) particles into peripheral tissues and cells (Mahley and Rall 2000).
Triggers of nonfatal myocardial infarction in Costa Rica : heavy physical exertion, sexual activity, and infection
(Annals of epidemiology, Vol. 17, no. 2, 2007) Baylin, Ana; Hernández Díaz, Sonia; Siles, Xinia; Kabagambe, Edmond K.; Campos, Hannia
The incidence of coronary heart disease is increasing in developing countries undergoing socioeconomic transition(1). Lifestyles in many of these countries are dramatically different from those in Europe and the United States. For ex-ample, vigorous physical activity is more likely to be related to work than to recreational activities(2). The pattern of acute infections also is distinct, with a greater incidence than in developed countries. In addition, because transition countries are characterized by the presence of both infectious and chronic disease (3), the study of gastroenteritis episodes as a trigger of myocardial infarction (MI) is of particular interest in these countries. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) as a major health problem was established only recently in transition societies, and very few studies examined factors affecting CVD in the context of these different lifestyles(4).
Adipose tissue arachidonic acid and the metabolic syndrome in Costa Rican adults
(Clinical Nutrition, no. 26, 2007) Williams, Eric S.; Baylin, Ana; Campos, Hannia
Arachidonic acid, an n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), is a major component of mammalian cell membranes and may account for up to 25% of all phospholipid fatty acids. Although it is consumed in the diet in meats, eggs, and some fish, it is also synthesized in the liver from linoleic acid, the most abundant dietary PUFA, and transported to other cell types via serum albumin or lipoproteins. A major function of arachidonic acid is to serve as a precursor to the eicosanoid family of autocrine and paracrine hormones that modulates immune and inflammatory responses in the body. Additionally, there is evidence that arachidonic acid may act as a transcriptional regulator by modulating signal transduction at the cell surface, by altering membrane fluidity, or cell surface interactions by acylating membrane proteins.

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